有关自考本科毕业毕业论文写作资料-论文写作网

简介:适合论文作者论文写作的大学硕士及相关本科毕业论文，相关论文作者开题报告范文和学术职称论文参考文献下载。

论文作者论文范文

　　医学科学工作者,无论是从事医疗,预防,还是从事科研或教学工作,都离不开科研论文的写作.也就是说,医学科学工作者在对科研与实践工作中所获得的数据资料进行科学的归纳,分析与推理之后,还要能够将所得出的反映客观规律的论点以书面的形式加以表达.英文医学科研论文的撰写与发表是进行学术交流的主要手段.如今要取得博士学位也必须要有SCI收录的发表,许多因此纷纷投稿英文期刊.而在投稿英文期刊时不免会遇到这样或那样的问题,因此,作为医学研究生非常有必要学习如何撰写英文医学科研论文.掌握英文医学科研论文撰写的技巧将有助于医疗科研成果及时,有效的发表,促进学术交流,进而促进医学科学的快速发展.

　　英文医学科研论文的撰写需要掌握并遵循一些比较简单的规则.写论文需要有一个明确的提纲贯穿写作全过程.首先研究者要写好引言(Introduction)部分,阐明研究背景,提出问题,并阐明解决该问题的必要性及重要性;研究方法(Methods)部分应真实可信,并使读者依照研究方法可以重复该项研究;研究结果(Results)应条理清晰并使读者容易理解;讨论(Discusson)部分则应着重阐述研究工作的意义.

　　本章节将通过科研论文的写作实例,从如何写论文范文题目,作者署名,摘要,关键词,引言,材料与方法,结果,以及讨论等方面来介绍撰写英文医学科研论文的方法与技巧.

　　第一节英文医学科技论文的结构及写作规划

　　一,英文医学科技论文的结构

　　如今医学领域的英文期刊种类,数目繁多,只要医学科学工作者能够获得有价值的研究结果,就不必担心找不到适合发表其研究成果的期刊.但是,即使研究成果非常有发表价值,要想被相应的期刊接发表,仍然需要按照英文科研论文的写作规范,掌握英文写作的方法与技巧,养成良好的写作作风与习惯,才能通过科研论文的撰写将其研究目的,方法与结果等内容进行准确,恰当地表达.由此,才能充分展现其研究工作的学术水平,达到发表科研论文的最终目的.换言之,优秀的科研论文要为读者提供准确,详细和必要的信息,以使他们能够:①评估研究者所报道的观测,观察研究工作是否准确,可行;②依据文中的描述重复研究者所做的实验;③判断文中得出的结论是否与其实验数据相符,即结论是否准确,可信.

　　一篇论文的基本结构可以概括为"IMRD",即:① Introduction引言:阐明文中要解决的问题;② ethods方法:采用了什么研究手段;③ esults结果:发现了什么现象,得到了什么数据;④ iscussion讨论:论述这些发现的意义.

　　二,整体规划论文基本结构的方法

　　关于如何整体规划论文的基本结构,论文作者可以借鉴剑桥大学Ashhy教授提出的"概念框架法 (onceptional Framework)"(Ashhy,2000),具体做法如下:

　　首先写下事先拟定的

论文作者格式:英国专访“超级病菌”论文作者患者症状各不同但均有抗药性

;文章题目,然后按照"IMR(A)D"的结构划出相应的区域.将每个部分的主题句依次写在对应的区域内.把所能想到的相关信息逐一记录在对应区域的附近,例如段落标题,图表,以及需要进一步阐述的观点等等,并用箭头标示它们属于哪个区域.标画"概念框架"的过程即是思考的过程,在此期间不必考虑细节,主要是积累素材.例如,思考还需补充哪些材料?是否需要再去找某篇文献的原文?是否需要补画一张图表?当发现需要再补充一个段落时,就在"概念框架"中再增添一个新的区域即可.如果发现原有的顺序需做调整,就用箭头标示新的排列顺序.绘制"概念框架"的过程虽然看似简单的儿童游戏,但对论文的写作却非常有帮助.这一过程提供了自由思考的空间,并通过图示的方式逐渐形成了写作的思路,这便是论文写作的第一步.从整体考虑文章结构,思考各种组织文章素材的方法,准备好所需的资料,随时记录新的想法.采用这种方法,使得正式下笔时,无论从哪一部分写起,都能够得心应手,把握全局和主题.

　　英文科研论文的四个主要组成部分的写作要领及方法.

　　 (一)引言ntroduction)

　　引言又叫绪论,引子,前言等.引言是文章的开场白,其作用是向读者介绍文章的主题,目的和总纲,便于读者了解文中所述科研工作的研究背景以及作者的写作思路.

　　美国医学写作协会(American Medical Writers Association)制定的《医学论文写作要领》中对"引言"部分作了如下规定:

　　 1. Defines the scientific problem that stimulated the work(阐明激发作者进行此项工作的科学问题)2. Explains the authors' technical approach or hypotheses.(说明作者的技术手段和研究假设)3. States the purpose and scope of the study.(说明研究的目的和范畴)4. Introduces and defines terms and abbreviations.(介绍并定义所用的术语与缩写)下面以发表在英文期刊《人类遗传学》(Human Geics)的一篇题为"The origins and geic structure of three co-resident Chinese Muslim Populations: the Salar, Bo'an and Dongxiang"(Wang et al., Human Geics, 2003)的文章为例,来讲解"引言"部分涉及的内容及其写作方法.

　　 The history of Chinese Muslims dates back some 1,400 years to the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), when followers of the Islamic faith variously entered China as troops, merchants and political emissaries from Arabia and Persia. These groups and individuals subsequently settled throughout China, and contributed appreciably towards local and national development. There are ten officially recognized Muslim minorities in the Peoples Republic of China, the Bo'an, Dongxiang, Hui, Kazakh, Kirghiz, Salar, Tatar, Tajik, Uygur and Uzbek, with a bined current population of 91 million. Although their individual histories and population sizes vary, the origins of the ten populations h论文范文e been traced to Arab, Iranian and Central Asian sources, and/or the Mongol peoples.

　　本段简要介绍了中国穆斯林民族的起源与发展史.

　　 A number of studies h论文范文e been reported on the geic history of Chinese groups, each of which primarily focused on selection, founder and/or bottleneck effects, geic drift, and mutation, and addressed human migration on an evolutionary time scale. Thus only limited attention has been paid to factors such as endogamy, past and current population sizes, polygyny and polyandry, and kin-structured migration, which could significantly shape the pattern of geic diversity within the relatively shorter time frame of historical events.

　　本段介绍了前人对中国穆斯林民族历史起源的研究进展及其存在的问题.

　　 The present study examined genomic variation in three endogamous Chinese Muslim munities, the Salar, Bo'an, and Dongxiang, by genotyping uni- and bi-parental markers. The three ethnic groups are typical of contemporary Chinese Muslim munities; each has maintained many of the cultural and religious traditions of their founders and all f论文范文our munity endogamy and permit consanguineous marriage. However, the Salar are a Turkic language munity, whereas the Bo'an and Dongxiang are Mongolian-speaking. In 1998 the populations of the three munities were reported as 11,683 Bo'an, 87,546 Salar, and 373,600 Dongxiang .

　　本段介绍了该项研究工作的研究对象,方法与目的,即利用分子标记的基因型数据来研究3个存在近亲婚配习俗的中国穆斯林(撒拉族,保安族与东乡族)人群基因组的遗传变异.

　　 (二)方法ethods)

　　方法部分是整个论文中非常重要的一部分,却常常容易被忽视.如果文中叙述的方法并不恰当,甚至存在谬误,那么这样的研究工作就缺乏可信度,这也是导致退稿的最常见原因之一.

　　 "理论性论文"是应用理论分析或计算分析来证明论点的正确与否.需要对研究对象进行准确的描述,并定量各因素之间的相互关系.在写作上,常采用举例,推理,反证,类比,对比,因果分析,归等方法.要求论点明确且唯一,论据充分而必要,层次清楚,结构合理,逻辑性强.

　　 "实验性论文"的"实验材料与方法"部分,要把材料的来源,性质和数量,实验所使用的仪器,设备,实验条件和测试方法等交待清楚,其目的是使他人能重复同样的实验操作,以验证文中报道的新发现的正确性与可靠性.

　　 "创新性技术论文"是以自然理论为基础,报道应用自然科学的最新成果实现技术创新,或是运用已有的科学技术理论和作者的实践经验来实现技术创新的论文.

　　 "新技术应用性论文"则是报道应用某种新技术(工艺,产品,设备)解决了医学实践中遇到的实际问题,并取得了良好的经济效益和社会效益的论文.写作这类论文时,应阐明"为什么要应用这种新技术","如何应用"及"结果如何"这个方面.并着重强调应用这种新技术的必要性和可行性,以及如何应用.对于应用的改进或改进的建议,可写在结论部分.

　　 "方法"部分的主要目的是详细描述实验设计,以便其他科研工作者在需要时依据这些描述能够重复该实验.根据文章篇幅的大小,可相应调整"方法"部分的详略程度.如果采用的是标准的检测,研究方法,则只需注明相应的参考文献即可.然而多数情况下,研究者采用的是已有方法的改良法,这时就需要较为详细地加以叙述,以便他人理解."方法"部分的写作应按逻辑顺序描述研究的实验设计,详细叙述研究的步骤或给出相关文献,给出对所得资料进行分析的方法.研究设计应包括:对其进行简洁的描述,告知读者如何进行随机化,应注意"独立,平行,配对,自身对照"等词语的使用,最好引用该设计和方法的原始报道;在叙述研究是如何进行的过程中,应告知读者如何选择研究对象,及剔除对象的原因和标准;准确而详尽地描述所使用的材料,给出所用药物的精确剂量及确切的治疗方式等.同时要注意医学研究中所涉及的*学问题,以人为研究对象的实验报告,应表明实验过程是否符合《赫尔辛基宣言》的标准.文章中不应使用患者的姓名,缩写名或医院中的各种编号.若刊用人像应得到患者的许可或采取遮蔽法.为确保实验的可重复性,作者必须做到:如果使用了任何新的方法,一定要给出完整的细节描述;给出所用测量方法的精度;使用恰当的统计方法.

　　美国医学写作协会(American Medical Writers Association)制定的《医学论文写作要领》中对于"方法"部分的写作要求如下:

　　 1.urposes(目的)

　　 (1)To permit readers to judge the validity of the study(使读者能够判断研究的可靠性)

　　 (2)To permit others to replicate the study(使他人能够重复该项研究)

　　 2. Avoid le论文范文ing gaps in the logic of the methods(避免留下逻辑上的漏洞)

　　例如,如果在文中写道"We used a modified Simon's method."(我们使用了修正的Simon的方法),那么就一定要注明"我们修正了什么?"(What were the modifications?)

　　 3. tudy design(研究设计)

　　 (1) Identify the explanatory and response variables (interventions and outes) studied说明研究中的描述性变量及导致的结局,例如:干预和结果- Identify the unit of analysis (e.g.,eyes,patients) 说明研究分析的对象(例如:眼睛,患者) - Provide measurable ("operational") definitions 定义可测量的指标 - Describe the methods of data collection and measurement: science is measurement！描述数据收集和测量的方法:科学就是测量！

　　 (2)Specify the type of study(说明研究的类型)Difference vs. equivalence studies 差异性还是等效性研究

　　 Pragmatic vs. explanatory studies 原理性还是阐释性研究

　　 Retrospective (case-control) study 回顾性研究

　　 Cross-sectional (survey) study 研究

　　 Prospective (cohort or longitudinal) study 预测性研究

　　 Randomized controlled clinical trial 随机临床实验

　　 (3)Describe the population studied描述研究的人群Give the eligibility criteria (给出合理的标准(4)Explain how subjects were assigned to groups 说明研究对象如何分组Define cases and controls in retrospective trials 指定回顾性实验的病例与对照

　　 Define exposures or diagnoses in prospective trials说明前瞻性实验中的处理或诊断方法

　　 (5)Give the dates or time periods of data collection 给出数据收集的日期或时间间隔(6)Identify the statistical methods (last paragraph of the Methods)确定统计方法(写在"方法"部分的最后一段)Identify at least the primary parisons to be made 至少说明基本的统计学比较方法Describe how the sample size was determined (give details of power calculation)描述样本数量是如何确定的

　　 Identify the general type of analyses to be applied (e.g.,hypothesis testing; correlation; survival analysis)明确应用的分析类型(例如,假设检验,相关分析,生存分析)

　　 Intention-to-treat vs. on-protocol analysis 意欲如何处理与按照计划书分析的比较Specify the alpha level (e.g.,0.05; 0.01) 指定α水平

　　 Identify the statistical software package used in the analysis说明分析所用的软件包

　　任何研究工作在计划阶段就要寻求统计学专家的帮助,统计学专家的建议对改进临床调查的设计及后期分析大有益处.但是,也不要指望依靠统计学家来完全改善一个糟糕的科研设计.

　　继续以2003年发表在《人类遗传学》(Human Geics)题为"The origins and geic structure of three co-resident Chinese Muslim Populations: the Salar, Bo'an and Dongxiang"的文章为例,分析研究方法的撰写.

　　 Ethical approval

　　 The study of the Chinese Muslim munities was performed with the approval of the Ethics Committee of Tongji Medical University, PR China and Edith Cowan University, Australia. Prior consent to undertake the investigation was obtained at munity level through the cooperation of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing.

　　该段说明了本研究考虑到了有关*学的问题强调在进行研究之前已经得到了*委员会的支持并与研究者签署了知情同意书.

　　 Analytical methods

　　 Finger-prick blood samples from 81 Salar (52 males, 29 females), 67 Bo'an (47 males, 20 females) and 64 Dongxiang (49 males, 15 females) were obtained from randomly selected individuals in each munity, all of whom were resident in Jishisan County, a minority autonomous region located in Gansu province, northwest China. The overall age range of the subjects was 12 to 18 years.

　　本段介绍了研究对象的选取与分组情况,及其处理方法.

　　 A set of ten dinucleotide STR markers on chromosomes 13 and 15 (D13S126, D13S133, D13S192, D13S270, D15S11, D15S97, D15S98, D15S101, D15S108 and GABRB3) was investigated in all samples following procedures previously standardized on East and South Asian populations. For Y-chromosome analysis, one tri- and three tetranucleotide STR markers (DYS19, DYS388, DYS389I, DYS393) were chosen from a panel of markers widely used in forensic examinations. PCR conditions for the autosomal markers and for the Y-chromosome markers were as previously described (Wang et al. 2000). Separation of the PCR products was performed on 6% denaturing polyacrylamide gels using an ABI 373A automatic sequencer (Applied Biosystems). The Genotyper program was used to size STR alleles by reference to an internal size standard Genescan-500 TAMRA (Applied Biosystems).

　　本段介绍了应用ABI 373A DNA 测序仪检测常染色体和Y染色体的STR位点.

　　 Male samples were analyzed for 15 unique event polymorphi论文范文s (UEPs) on the Y-chromosome: M1 (YAP), M216/M130 (RPS4Y), M89/M213, M172, M170, M9, M175/M214, M122, M134, M159, M119, M95, M45, M173, and M17 (Underhill et al. 2001). PCR primers were as described elsewhere (Underhill et al. 2001), with the exception of the forward primers for M45 (5(-A论文范文GGCAGTGAAAAA论文范文ATAGCTA-3() and M17(5(-GTGG论文范文GCTGG论文范文G论文范文ACGTG-3(), which were designed with a 3( mi论文范文atch creating a restriction fragment length polymorphi论文范文 (RFLP) site. M45 was typed by BfaI restriction digestion of the PCR product and M17 by AflIII digestion. Five other markers were typed using PCR-RFLP assays according to the manufacturer's instructions (New England BioLabs): M130 (BslI), M213 (NlaIII), M9 (HinfI), M175 (MboII), and M122 (NlaIII). M1 was detected by PCR amplification of either a 455-bp (YAP+) or 150-bp (YAP() fragment that can be resolved by electrophoresis on 2% agarose. The remaining polymorphi论文范文s were analysed using a modified version of the primer-extension assay (protocol 论文范文ailable on request) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (Haff and Smirnov 1997). Mass spectra were collected using a Voyager-DE PRO MALDI-TOF instrument (Applied Biosystems). Genotypes were determined by calculating the mass of the dideoxynucleotide incorporated at the variant site.

　　本段介绍了应用飞行质谱检测Y-染色体基因多态性.

　　 The mtDNA hypervariable region I (HV-I) was amplified and sequenced in a subset of 30 samples (n 等于 10 from each munity) according to Hopgood et al. (1992), using ABI Pri论文范文 dye primer kits running on 6% denaturing polyacrylamide gels. Sequence data were analyzed using ABI DNA analysis software and SEQUENCER (Gene Codes).

　　本段介绍了线粒体DNA的检测.

　　以上三段介绍了研究测量的指标,数据收集和测量的方法,详细地描述了该项研究的实验流程.

　　 Statistical methods

　　 For the autosomal data, basic statistical putations included allele frequency, heterozygosity and gene diversity, with Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) tests performed using the GENEPOP program. An exact probability test was employed to assess the significance of deviation from HWE. Where deviation from HWE was confirmed, a U-test was used to further assess whether it was due to heterozygote deficiency. Both the exact probability test and the U-Test are based on Markov chain Monte Carlo type algorithms. The correlation of genes of individuals within populations (FIS) was calculated for each population.

　　该段介绍了本研究所使用的统计学方法.

　　 The degree of population differentiation for the autosomal, Y-chromosome and mtDNA data sets was ascertained by analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA), calculated using Arlequin. Nei's standard distance (Ds) was calculated for autosomal and Y- chromosome STR data using the Microsat software package. Tamura and Nei's distance was calculated for the mtDNA data using Mega 2.1. This program was also used to generate Neighbour-Joining (NJ) phylogeic trees from the autosomal, Y-chromosome STRs and mtDNA distance matrices. The statistical robustness of the trees was tested on a parison of 1000 bootstrap iterations.

　　本段介绍该项研究所采用的统计学方法及进行各种统计学分析所使用的软件.

　　 (三)结果(Results)

　　结果部分应回答在引言中提出的问题,采用文字,图,表并用的方式,说明与对照组比较的结果,也应告知意想不到的结果.一篇论文的结果部分有两个特点:对研究工作主要发现的全面而概括的描述;清晰而简明的表明实验数据.

　　但是,在该部分的写作中并不需要罗列所有的实验数据,而是叙述所有的结果,尤其应着重于那些可以回答引言中问题的结论.因此这部分只应当列举有关的,有代表性的数据.对结论的统计分析一定要适当,由于目前统计软件包易学好用,很多年轻的研究工作者并不愿意去深入了解统计方法的原理,审稿人有时也仅仅评估论文所采用的统计方法的合理性,所以如果所用的统计分析复杂而不常用,最好请统计学家帮助修改对统计分析的描述.

　　写作结果部分常见的是:

　　罗列未经整理加工的庞杂的原始数据,或数据整理方法不当;

　　所列数据与文章内容不符,与"材料与方法"部分不能呼应;

　　结果数据之间缺乏逻辑性,没有层次,显得零乱;

　　用不确切或含糊的措辞表述结果.

　　美国医学写作协会(American Medical Writers Association)医学论文写作要领中对于"结果"部分的说明是:

　　 1. Purpose(目的)

　　 (1) To tell what happened during the study 叙述研究过程中发生了什么(2) To present the findings of the study 阐述研究的发现2. Explain any deviations from the study as planned 解释实际研究中出现的偏差3. Provide a schematic summary of the study提供研究的纲要性小结(1) To show the study design表明研究设计(2) To indicate the flow of subjects throughout the study 贯穿主题(3) To account for all subjects or observations 解释所有的研究对象或观察资料4. Present the results of the study给出研究的结果(1) Use figures or tables when possible 尽量使用图表- Compares groups at baseline 比较不同组别基线水平的差异- Present data in Systems Internationale (SI) units if required by journal 采用国际单位制(2) Focus on the primary parisons first and give关注于主要的比较- The actual change or difference between groups (the "estimated treatment effect") 组别间的实际变化- The 95% confidence interval for this estimate估计95%的置信区间- If reported, the exact P value of the difference (until P < 0.001)差异的精确P值(直到P<0.001)- The test used in the statistical analysis统计分析中用到的检验方法- Assurance that the assumptions of the analysis were met (were the data normally distributed or skewed? Independent or paired? Linearly related or not?) 确定统计分析方法与研究假定是否相符(数据是正态还是偏态分布?是成组比较还是配对比较?是否有线性相关关系?)

　　 (3) Explain any dropouts or any missing data 对失访与缺失的数据做出解释再以2003年发表在《人类遗传学》(Human Geics)的文章"The origins and geic structure of three co-resident Chinese Muslim Populations: the Salar, Bo'an and Dongxiang"为例.

　　 The three Muslim populations showed basically similar allelic distributions across all ten autosomal loci. A total of 160 alleles were identified in the 212 individuals, with 53 alleles (33.1%) shared by all three munities. The mean number of alleles observed at each locus varied by STR marker, and ranged from 6.3 alleles for D13S126 to 18.0 for D13S133. On 论文范文erage, 1.7 munity-specific alleles were detected at each locus.

　　本段指出了研究对象,并对研究对象的等位基因分布进行基本的统计描述.

　　 Significant deviations (p<0.05) from HWE were observed at six loci (D13S133, D13S192, D13S270, D15S108, D15S11, D15S98) in the Salar, seven loci (D13S133, D13S270, D15S11, D15S98, D15S101, D15S108, GABRB3) in the Bo'an, and two loci (D13S270, D15S108) in the Dongxiang. U-tests confirmed that all deviations were due to heterozygote deficiency. The mean Fis values, which describe the inbreeding effect within a sub-population, were 0.16 for Salar, 0.12 for Bo'an and 0.01 for the numerically larger Dongxiang munity. The ponents of autosomal geic variation within and between the three munities examined by AMOVA indicated a negative inter-munity variation of -2.2% (equal to an Fst of -0.02), suggesting they h论文范文e similar autosomal gene pools .

　　本段介绍了常染色体遗传变异在3个穆斯林民族之间的差异.

　　 The 论文范文erage gene diversity calculated for the Y-chromosome STRs was 0.59 for the Salar, 0.52 for the Bo'an, and 0.40 for the Dongxiang. Haplotypes were constructed from the Y-chromosome data . Of the 39 haplotypes identified, 12% were shared by all three munities, 34% were shared by two of the three munities, and 54% were munity-specific. Haplotype diversity was 0.40 for the Salar, 0.45 for the Bo'an, and 0.38 for the Dongxiang. The Salar had the highest mean number of pairwise differences (1.76), followed by the Bo'an (1.57) and Dongxiang (0.81). AMOVA showed that 29.4% of variation was between-population, which g论文范文e an accumulated Fst value of 0.29 and indicated significant inter-population diversity. The corresponding intra-population variation was 70.6%.

　　 Haplotype diversity for the Y-chromosome UEPs was 0.88 for the Salar, 0.86 for the Bo'an, and 0.87 for the Dongxiang, parable to the mean regional diversities reported for North East Asia (0.84), South East Asia (0.86), and Central Asia (0.86) (Karafet et al. 2001). Ten haplotypes were observed in each of the three Muslim populations, with eight or nine haplotypes shared between the different munities. The haplotype frequencies in the present study populations and selected populations from Asia are shown graphically in Figure 2, with haplotypes grouped according to Underhill et al. (2001). The two most mon haplotypes in the Salar, Bo'an and Dongxiang were M122 (including M134 and LINE-1/M159), with frequencies ranging from 24%-30%, and M17 which occurs at similar frequencies in the Bo'an (26%) and Dongxiang (28%), and at a slightly lower frequency in the Salar (17%).

　　以上两段介绍了Y染色体变异在3个穆斯林民族之间以及与其他民族之间的差异.

　　 M122 haplotypes are found at high frequency in North East Asia (22%), but are relatively rare in Central Asia (3% on 论文范文erage, but higher in some populations of Uzbekistan and the Uygurs). The M17 (or SRY-1532/SRY10831) haplotypes on the other hand are found at high frequency throughout Central Asia (26%), but are rare in North East Asia (5%). The Bo'an and Dongxiang are Mongolian-speaking, so M130 (including M217) was another haplotype of potential interest, occurring at frequencies of >50% in North Asia (Mongolians and Siberians), moderate frequency in Central Asia (25%), and at lower frequency in the Hui (17%) and Northern Han (5%) (Karafet et al. 2001). In fact, this haplotype was present at low frequencies in the Salar (7%), Bo'an (3%), and Dongxiang (0%).

　　本段对Y染色体单核苷酸多态性的特异单倍型进行重点描述,并进一步进行特异单倍型在中国穆斯林民族与其他民族之间的比较.

　　 A 360-nucleotide sequence of HV-I in the mitochondrial D-loop (position 16024-16383) was analysed in 30 samples, ten from each of the three munities. At least two polymorphic sites were mon in all samples. These prised a site characterised by a T at position 16223 (Salar, 90%; Bo'an, 70%; Dongxiang, 70%), and a C at position 16362 (Salar 60%; Bo'an, 70%; Dongxiang, 30%). Of the 30 mtDNA sequences examined, 23 were unique, two were found twice in the Bo'an and Salar, and one sequence was found three times in the Salar. A total of 44 polymorphic sites were identified among the three populations, equivalent to 12.2% of the overall 360bp sequence. The pairwise mtDNA nucleotide differences for the three populations were 5.70, 6.42 and 5.90 (SD 等于 2.47) for the Salar, Bo'an and Dongxiang respectively. The mtDNA AMOVA results indicated that inter-population variation was low in the three populations (1.2%), with 98.8% diversity distributed within the munities.

　　本段介绍了mtDNA多态性在3组人群中的比较及相应的统计学意义.

　　 (四)讨论iscussion)

　　讨论是对实验观察结果进行理性的分析和综合,使结果通过逻辑推理,理论分析,上升为理性认识,得出科学的,恰如其分的结论.主要包括以下内容:

　　 1. 对实验结果(预期结果和预期以外的结果或现象)进行理论的解释和分析;

　　 2. 将结果与其作者实验结果进行分析比较,解释其结果异同的原因,提出自己的见解;

　　 3. 引用有关文献来说明和支持本文的观点和结论;

　　 4. 客观地总结实验的经验和教训;

　　 5. 客观地评价研究的水平及研究结果的科学价值;

　　 6. 对研究过程中遇到的问题及尚未解决的问题提出研究方向和设想.

　　常见问题:①对结果没有充分的理论分析,或得不出应有的理性结论,未能为进一步研究或对其他科学家提供必要的研究线索;②不能恰当地引用有关的文献,或是罗列与主题关系不大的文献;③过高评价研究水平及结果的价值.

　　美国医学写作协会(American Medical Writers Association)制定的《医学论文写作要领》中对于"讨论"部分的说明是:

　　 1. urpose(目的)to explain the nature and importance of the findings (Answers the questions: "So what?" and "Who cares?") 解释研究发现的性质和重要性(应回答:"结果的意义"以及"谁更关注该结果")2. Should be the most useful section but is often the weakest (应当是最有意义的部分但往往最易被忽视)3. Begins by summarizing the study and the main results(以总结研究及其主要结果开始)4. Discuss the implication of the results and what else is known about the problem and its proposed solutions(讨论结果的含义,还有哪些问题以及可能的解决之道)5. Generally includes the literature review(通常包括文献回顾)6. State the limitations of the study(说明研究的局限性)7. List the conclusions(列出结论)Distinguish between clinical and statistical significance 区分临床意义和统计意义In studies with low statistical power,do not mistake inconclusive results for negative results ("absence of proof is not proof of absence")在低统计效能的研究中,不要错误的把非决定性的结果当作阴性结果(结果是阴性并不代表结论是阴性)Distinguish between supported conclusions and speculation.区别结论和推论

　　注意,讨论的要素在于:①总结主要的发现;②讨论方法可能存在的问题;③将结论和他人的工作进行比较;④讨论研究发现的临床和科技含义;⑤对未来进一步研究的建议;⑥得出一个简洁有力的结论.

　　尽管这个IMRD描述了一篇论文的基本结构,但其他部分也同样重要.标题,摘要和作者的写作规范将在第二至第四节进行介绍.要知道,多数人都一般只会去仔细阅读论文的标题,会认真阅读摘要的人要少一些,而通常只有很少一部分人会去精读全文.一篇论文的题目和摘要至关重要,好的题目和摘要才能吸引读者去阅读全文.

　　恰当的参考文献的黄金规则就是只列举相关的,正式出版的文献,并把他们按照所投稿期刊的要求恰当的列举出来.大量的列举参考文献显得并不那么学术和专业,因为作者应当知道哪些文献才是对研究真正有益的.

　　开始撰写论文之前,应首先仔细阅读期刊的""并据此准备论文撰写.如果给一个期刊投稿,却按照另一个期刊的要求来书写,就犯了一个严重的错误,因为这样会使人觉得这是刚刚被其他期刊退回的稿件.在论文的准备阶段,要经常按照""来检查稿件以使稿符合要求.

　　继续以2003年发表在《人类遗传学》(Human Geics)的文章"The origins and geic structure of three co-resident Chinese Muslim Populations: the Salar, Bo'an and Dongxiang"为例,来分析讨论部分的撰写.

　　 The higher homozygosity levels and significant deviations from HWE widely observed in the Salar, Bo'an and Dongxiang are suggestive of high levels of endogamous and/or consanguineous marriage. This is consistent with a previous genealogical study which reported that all three Muslim populations were endogamous, with mean coefficient inbreeding (() values of 0.0023 to 0.00558 (Du & Zhao 1981).

　　讨论以本研究的主要结果开始,并与其他作者类似实验的结果的进行分析比较.

　　 AMOVA analysis showed that the inter-population variation of Y-chromosome STRs greatly exceeded those for autosomes and mtDNA. Lower male-transgeneration migration and/or patrilocality h论文范文e been identified as major geic forces for the higher Fst values in Hindu castes and other populations (Bamshad et al. 1998; Seielstad et al. 1998; Hammer et al. 2001). However, in the present study, besides patrilocality it seems that diverse paternal lineages and a shared maternal gene pool h论文范文e contributed significantly to the observed differences in Y-chromosome, autosome and mtDNA Fst values in the three munities.

　　 In contrast to the Y-chromosome STRs, the more ancient Y-chromosome lineages represented by UEPs occur at quite similar frequencies in the three populations, with 80-90% of the haplotypes in mon, suggesting that they h论文范文e shared male origins on an evolutionary time scale. The high frequency of the M17 haplotype is in keeping with a Central Asian origin, with frequencies similar to those of the Altaic/Turkic-speaking Uzbeks and Uygurs (Wells et al. 2001). The frequency decreases eastward across Siberia and Mongolia, with a low frequency in North East Asia (Hammer et al. 2001; Karafet et al. 2001; Wells et al. 2001). An analogue of the M17 haplotype (SRY-1532 also known as SRY10831) is also seen at high frequency in Eastern Iranian populations, with the suggestion that it had spread from Central Asia into modern Iran, Pakistan and northern India (Quintana-Murci et al. 2001, McElre论文范文ey & Quintana-Murci, 2002). This is consistent with the claimed historical origins of Muslim minorities in PR China (Gladney 1996; Wong and Dajani 1988), but suggests that the Bo'an and Dongxiang acquired the Mongolian language with relatively little Mongolian geic admixture.

　　 The mtDNA profiles in the three Muslim munities were parable to Han Chinese and Central Asian populations, in particular the T-C transition at position 16223 and the C-T transition at position 16362 (Comas et al. 1998). The 论文范文erage mtDNA nucleotide diversity index for the three populations was 0.017 which is similar to those reported in Eastern Asian (0.017), Mongolians (0.018) and Turkish (0.015) populations (Comas et al. 1998). The levels of nucleotide diversities within each munity were higher than expected for isolated endogamous munities, perhaps reflecting the prevalence of the two mon mutations at positions 16223 and 16362.

　　以上各段从常染色体,Y染色体和线粒体3个角度对研究结果进行论述,并对研究结果出科学解释.

　　 In summary, analysis of the UEPs indicates that the three Muslim populations, the Salar, Bo'an and Dongxiang, shared mon ancient origins, but the Y-chromosome STR data show that their male gene pools were significant altered by subsequent historical events resulting in the establishment of munity-specific Y-chromosome STR haplotypes. In contrast, the close geic distances between the mtDNA profiles of the three munities suggest that they shared very similar female founder gene pools, mostly Chinese Han females. Only detailed demographic histories for the three populations can identify the main driving forces for the differences between the autosomes, mtDNA and Y-chromosomes. This is especially pertinent in Chinese Muslim populations given the founder hypotheses associated with the Y-chromosome and mtDNA lineages. Historical accounts suggest that it was predominantly the transit of males into China and their partial incorporation into Chinese society which led to the formation of the majority of present-day ethnic minorities. Besides the observed mon geic background of ancient UEPs, these historical sources are validated by the high heterogeneity of the Y-chromosomal STRs and the cohesive female lineages of the three Muslim populations.

　　本段是对各研究结果的一个总结,常染色有很高的近亲同源度,线粒体遗传在3个穆斯林民族之间以及与汉族之间有很强的同源性.与之相对应,每个少数民族都有自己独特的Y染色体单倍型始祖现象.

　　第二节英文科技论的文题

　　是给论文取的名字.它是作者表达论文的特定思想内容,反映研究范围和深度的最鲜明,最精练的概括,也是最恰当,最简明的逻辑组合,是读者认识全文的窗口.读者根据所阅读的文题,即可决定是否需要阅读全文.因此论文的题目需要起到画龙点睛,一语道破的作用.

　　一般英文文题不超过10个词,或100个书写符号(包括间隔在内).可以是以目的和对象为主,也可以是以方法,结果或论点为主,以文题和内容相符合为原则.

　　文题有两忌:一是空泛,二是繁琐.要避免使用笼统,空洞,模棱两可,夸张,华而不实以及与同类论文相雷同的字眼.此外,许多作者习惯于用"研究","观察","体会","探讨"等词语,或把病例数列出.其实,除特殊情况外,这些一般都是不必要的.另外,还应尽量少用副词,并且避免使用系列论文的形式,如:"研究之一","研究之二"等.

　　文题的格式有几点要注意:①尽可能不用简称,缩写词,若一定要用时,应以常用并含义确切者为限,如CHD(冠心病),DNA,CT等;②10以下数字用英文,10以上数字用阿拉伯字;③尽可能不用标点符号.

　　题目不需要冗长,应当言简意赅.用最简练的语言写出令人印象深刻的题目,这样才能鼓励读者继续读下去并告诉他们这篇文章正是他们寻找的文献.

　　有时可根据需要采用具有完整结构的句式,如Abdominal ultrasound-guided embryo tran论文范文er improves clinical pregnancy rates after in-vitro fertilization: experiences from 330 cases of clinical investigations (Li R et al. Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Geics. 2005).1. 准确ccuracy) 将题目"Evaluation of health-related quality of life among hypertensive patients in a rural area"改为"Evaluation of health-related quality of life among hypertensive patients in a rural area, PR China"(Liang XY et al. Journal of Human Hypertension. 2006)后,更加明确地强调了研究的现场是在中国,因此后者要比前者更准确.

　　为确保题目的含义准确,应尽量避免使用非定量的,含义不明的词,如"Rapid,"New"等;并力求用词具有专指性.如美国Delaware 大学的Day教授在其知名论着《如何撰写和发表科技论文》中举例说明,从形式上看,题目"Preliminary observation on the effect of certain antibiotics on various species of bacteria"冗长拖沓,而"Action of antibiotics on bacteria"则简短且没有"废词".但是,这样又会因为太简短而流于宽泛,尽管用了一般性术语,但却不是专门的术语.Day认为,假定上述题目的文章讨论的不是所有抗生素(ntibiotics)对所有细菌(acteria)的作用,那么这个题目就没有什么实质性的意义.如果研究的仅是一种或几种抗生素和细菌,它们应分别出现在题目中,如果抗生素和细菌的种类数量太多,不能一一列于题目中,其所属的组名或类别应列于题目中.以下为几种可接受的题目:

　　 (1) Action of Streptomycin on Mycobaterium tubercrulosis;

　　 (2) Action of Streptomycin, Neomycin, and Tetracycline on Gram-Positive Bacteria;

　　 (3) Action of Polyene Antibiotics on Plant-Pathogenic Bacteria;

　　 (4) Actions of Various Antifungal Antibiotics on Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus.

　　 Day进一步解释说,尽管这些题目更能被接受,它们仍不够专门化.如果"Action of"具体化,其含义可能会更清楚,如,题目(1)Action of Streptomycin on Mycobaterium tubercrulosis可改为"Inhibition of growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by Streptomycin".

　　 2. 凝练 Brevity) 题目偏长,则不利于读者在浏览时迅速了解信息,如Preliminary observation on the effect of Zn on anticorrosion of zinc plating layer 应改为Effect of Zn on anticorrosion of zinc plating layer.

　　题目中常可以删去不必要的冠词(a, an和the)及多余的说明性"废词", 如:Development of, Evaluation of, Experimental, Investigation of (on), Observation on, On the, Regarding, Report of (on), Research on, Review of, Studies of (on), The preparation of, The synthesis of, The nature of, Treatment of, Use of等等.

　　另外,还要注意避免题目中词意上的重叠,如traumatic injuries, Zn element中的traumatic 和element均应省略.

　　在内容层次很多的情况下,如果难以简短化,最好采用主,副题目相结合的方法,如:Importance of replication in microarray gene expression studies: statistical methods and evidence from repetitive cDNA hybridizations (Lee MLet al. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2000),其中的副题目起到了补充,阐明作用,效果很好.

　　 3. 简明Clarity) 应尽可能地将表达核心内容的主题词放在题目开头.如The effectiveness of vaccination against influenza in healthy, working adults ( Nichol KL et al. N Engl J Med, 1995)中,如果作者用Vaccination作为题目的开头,读者可能会误认为这是一篇方法性文章:How to vaccinate this population?相反,用Effectiveness作为题目中第一个主题词,就直接指明了研究问题:Is vaccination in this population effective?

　　模糊不清的题目往往会给读者和索引工作带来麻烦和不便,如The effects of vioform on its onset和A plication of translumbar aortography中的its, plication令人费解.文题中应慎重使用缩略语.只有那些已得到科技界公认的缩略语才可使用,并且这种使用还应受到相应期刊读者群的制约.如DNA,AIDS等已为整个科技界公认和熟悉,可以在各类科技期刊的文题中使用;CT,NMR等已为整个医学界公认和熟悉,可以在医学期刊的文题中使用.中国的英文国名 (People's Republic China)在标题中可缩略为PR China, 例如:Autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa in a 5-generation pedigree in PR China (Teng Y et al, Eye, 2003)

　　总之文题的基本要素:①简明而精确;②信息丰富,描述精确;③不会产生误解;④具体——例如说明研究的类型和数字;⑤有利于分类的用词;⑥有趣而不.

　　二,如何才能写出一个好的标题?

　　 1. 掌握论文的宗旨首先必须明确写作意图,是介绍推广一项新技术研究及成果,还是一篇反映时代信息的综述或讲座?是一篇经验性总结,还是一则临床教训?读者看完标题,即可知道论文论述的宗旨,大致了解论文的主要内容;如果符合读者口味,又是读者需求的,原本不想阅读全文的读者,看了标题以后,也会产生阅读的兴趣.

　　如何才能反映论文的宗旨,即如何使论文切题,不妨选择下列办法:文先于题.在已有科技成果的基础上,先写成论文,然后再根据论文的主题来拟定标题.或先设想几个不同的标题,先作论文,再根据论文的内容相互比较,择其中贴切,醒目者用之.一般说来,前者常用于撰写回顾性分析,临床总结,病例报告等类论文,后者常用于撰写前瞻性研究,调查报告,综述讲座等类论文.

　　 2. 反映科研设计三要素医学论文,尤其是科研性强,学术价值高的论文,"研究对象,处理因素,观察指标"三要素必不可少.一个好的标题也必须反映这三个要素,才会对全文起到点石成金的作用.读者初看标题就决定是否阅读全文,其中一个重要原因就是看标题是否反映这三要素以及三要素有什么独特可取之处,如标题"The protective effect of circumcision on HIV incidence in rural low-risk men circumcised predominantly by traditional circumcisers in Kenta: two year follow-up of the Kericho HIV Cohort Study",其中三要素一目了然,即研究对象(rural low-risk men circumcised predominantly by traditional circumcisers in Kenta),采取的处理因素(ircumcision),观察指标(HIV ncidence).如果该标题仅有研究对象和处理因素,但缺少观察指标因素,就显得含混不清,科学性不足.即便此文是一篇好文章,读者看了标题以后,也会感觉无多大意义,因此一掠而过.(Shaffer et al. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes,1999).

　　 3 意惟其多,字惟其少论文的标题既要简短明确地反映论文的主题,还要与其他同类论文相区别,避免雷同,并且必须坚持"意惟其多,字惟其少"的原则.有些作者往往喜欢使用:×××几个问题,若干问题,几点意见,等等.诸如此类的标题不但笼统,空泛,不醒目和松散,更易与同类论文混淆雷同,是一种败笔的表现.

　　标题的长短,究竟以多少字为宜呢?其标准是准确地反映文章的主题,多一字显得累赘,少一字又残缺不全.既要惜墨如金,又要掷地有声,不可千篇一律地说多少字为好.如标题"A climatological investigation of SARS-CoV outbreak in Beijing, PR, China", (Yuan JS et al. American Journal of Infection Control, 2006) 言简意赅,冗字全无,一看就知作者的意图,且易于记忆与引证.如标题"Single nucleotide polymorphi论文范文 analysis using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry: Optimization and applications in human geics",(Wise C et al. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 2003)字多不繁,少一字就表达不清,读者读完后印象深刻.万一标题确实需要较长的限定语,删减则会影响内容表达,不删减又显得标题过长,此时可考虑加用副标题;但仍建议少用副标题为好,非用不可时才用.

　　 4 严格对照主题词检查众所周知,计算机检索技术是当今世界科技信息传播最快捷,最有效的媒介手段之一.医学论文,在短时间内,要查阅想了解的文献,只有通过计算机检索技术方可达到,其中掌握主题词索引检索首当其冲.各学科都有主题词词表.论文文题命好以后,必须拿主题词来检查对照,检验是否符合要求.如果标题未把作索引时可能用到的字(词)包含进去,甚至一个都没有,那么这个命题是失败的;相反,则是成功的.如标题"Neuroimaging studies of brain corpus striatum changes among heroin dependent patients treated with herbal medicine, U' finer TM capsule",其中"heroin dependent, patients, herbal, medicine"均可在主题词表中查到,可作为主题词标引,验证后说明此标题是好的(Jia SW et alAdditional Biology,2005).

　　标题应该用哪些重要的名词术语才能把作索引时可能用到的字(词)包括进去,可以采取"反证法"来解决.作者可以作如下设想:假如要在文献索引里去查阅与自己这一工作有关的论文,应该在哪些分类标题下查找,这些分类标题就是你要用的重要名词术语.

　　文题是文章的窗口,读者一定是先看文题再看文章全文,检索者也同样.尤其是在日新月异,科技论文数量大增的今天,读者往往是在浏览杂志的目录后,再通读感兴趣的全文.所以文题简明新颖,无疑容易得到读者的青睐,其内容,结论被转载,引用的可能性自然也相对增加.同样,文章内容再好,如其文题臃肿平淡也可失去不少凸现其价值的机会,甚至是转载的机会.所以文题一定要仔细斟酌,言简意赅,立意新颖.要能反映出研究的目的及其重要意义.

　　美国医学写作协会(American Medical Writers Association)医学论文写作要领中对于文题的说明是:

　　 1. Introduce the article into the scientific literature 表明文章是一篇科学文献2. Most important part of the article: the part most often read and often the only part read文章最重要的部分:被阅读最多的部分,也是经常唯一被阅读的部分3. Keep precise and brief (85-character limit is typical) 保证精确和简短4. Must stand alone: no abbreviations 意义要完整独立:不要用缩写5. Indicate whether subjects were animals (for clinical journals)表明对象是否是动物6. Avoid: 避免:①declarative or "headline" titles 宣言式或者新闻头条式标题;②"Our Experience" titles "我们的经验"式的标题;③asking rhetorical questions in titles 提出修辞式的问题.

　　 7. Start with 尽量用下述格式开头"Effect of [explanatory variable(s)] on [response variable] under [conditions]" 并且做必要的修饰,并且考虑到种群和研究设计.

　　 8. Running title 简题简题(Running itle)也称unning Heading,是印在论文页面顶端或底端的简要文题,其目的是给论文作标识.简题可以印在每一页面,或与作者姓名隔页交替印刷.简题应当是短于文题的简要形式,应当反映文题的主要特征.例如:

　　 (1) Title: Abdominal ultrasound -guided embryo tran论文范文er improves clinical pregnancy rates after in -vitro fertilization: experiences from 330 cases of clinical investigations.

　　 Running title: abdominal ultrasound-guided embryo tran论文范文er (Li et al. Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Geics, 2005)

　　简题也可以按文题相同的结构,选择最重要的词组组成,例如

　　 Title: Combining geics and population history in the study of ethnic diversity in the People's Republic of China.

　　 Running title: Ethnic diversity in China. (Black et al. Human Biology, 2006)

　　第三节英文科技论文作者署名与单位

　　作者通常是指论文的写作者,有时也意味着最初提出某个想法或者计划的人.一般情况下,只有极少数论文一位作者,大多是几位作者共享这篇论文.很显然,这些作者中的大多数既不是原创者,也不是写作者,但是他们都是团队的成员,为此项研究做出了贡献和技术支持.

　　作者署名的作用是对论文内容负有责任,也是便于读者与作者联系交流,而且还是对作者的尊重和作者应得的荣誉.此外也便于进行文献检索,查阅.作者的署名以及署名的顺序一定要慎重.在投稿时即应确定,并取得本人同意,以避免论文发表后引起纠纷.署名者不可太多,必须是参加全部工作或部分工作,或参加论文撰写,对本文内容能负责并能进行答辩者.有些部分工作参与者,或负责某一项的实验的测试人员等,可列入文末的致谢中.署名的顺序应按对本文贡献的大小排列,第一作者必须是论文的主要负责人.作为业务领导人只有确实参加本项工作,才能列为作者之一.集体署名只有在特殊的情况下才能使用.但必须在文末注明执笔者或整理者.学位论文的作者署名,研究生列前,指导导师在其后.在国内外发行的期刊上发表论文时,作者工作单位的名称应译成英文,作者姓名要写成汉语拼音.

　　署名直接关系到研究成果的首发权和知识产权,署名的所有人都应是直接参与该研究,对该项研究起重要作用,对论文的写作有重要贡献的人,每一位作者都应对论文负有解释的义务和权利,即对该文的所有内容或本人负责的那部分内容进行解释,对文章产生的利益和荣誉具有分享的权利,同时对该文产生的不良后果承担不可推卸的责任.署名的原则往往是按作者在该项研究中贡献的大小排列.

　　作者的必备条件

　　 1参与选题和设计,或参与资料的分析和解释者.

　　 2起草或修改论文中关键性理论或其他主要内容者.

　　 3能对编辑部的修改意见进行核修,在学术界进行答辩,并最终同意该文章发表者.

　　以上3条均需具备.仅参与获得资金或收集资料者不能列为作者,仅对科研小组进行一般管理者也不宜列为作者.

　　准则要求作者的排序不能有任何实际意义.然而大多数人都承认,第一作者是的位置.如果作者多于6人,多数期刊仅仅列出前三位而把其他作者归入"等"之列.第一作者通常是写作此论文之人,第二和第三作者通常是出了显着贡献之人.而最后一位作者通常是重量级人物并且是责任作者,当然并不是百分之百如此.

　　美国医学写作协会(American Medical Writers Association)医学论文写作要领中对于作者的说明是:

　　 Authorship:"Authorship credit should be based only on 1) substantial contributions to conception and design, or acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data; 2) drafting the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content; and 3) final approval of the version to be published. Conditions 1,2,and 3 must all be met. Acquisition of funding, the collection of data, or general supervision of the research group, by themselves, do not justify authorship."

　　二,不当署名虽然国内外各类科技期刊对作者署名有过相应的规范要求,但由于利益的驱使和科技道德意识的淡薄,使很多作者忽视了这些规范,出现一些问题.

　　 1搭车一些科学家甚至有一定知名度的学者,无论何种论文均要求排上自己的名字;个别人私下交易,使与该论文无任何联系的人挂上名字,帮助别人"有成果".他只看到诱人的成果或文章带来的利益和荣誉,却忽略了一旦出现剽窃和修改数据等严重违反科技道德的事件时所要承担的责任以及由此带来的声誉损害.

　　 2被动署名往往对有一定声望的科学家署名的文章,出于对知名学者的信赖,对他们权威性的认可,可能放松对这类稿件的认真审查,通过率高.有的作者为了便于自己论文的发表,未征得他人的同意就将这些知名学者的名字写上,目的是希望通过他人的声誉使自己的论文更论文范文过,达到发表的目的.这种行为的恶劣性在于严重侵犯了专家学者的声誉,论文一旦出问题将带来不可挽回的影响.

　　而通讯作者比较特殊,通讯作者是国际上科技期刊的通行作法.一般来说,研究生课题的主要完成论文范文撰写论文的主要执笔人作为第一作者并无异议.但从科研项目的基金申请到项目实施的学术思想和经验方法一般来自导师,而且研究生的研究工作的全程及反映科研成果论文的撰写是在导师指导监控下完成的,导师对所发表的论文负有主要责任.

　　通讯作者的要求:可以是第一作者,也可以是其他作者,但必须是论文的主要负责人,对论文的科学性和结果,结论的可信性负主要责任.

　　这样执行的优点:其一,明确科技论文的主要责任人:一篇研究论文的发表包含着导师或课题负责人研究思想的创新和劳动心血的付出,通讯作者标志着对导师和课题负责人的尊敬和成绩的认可.其二,严肃投稿行为,使发表论文正规化和责任化可增强导师在论文投稿前认真审稿把关.另外,一旦论文出现学术或其他问题,导师有不可推卸的责任,同时严肃了投稿行为.其三,为读者提供了沟通学术交流的渠道.

　　成为作者会带来荣誉,同时也带来责任.一些情况下,如果发表了错误或是作假的数据,并不是共同作者不会承担责任.这许许多多问题都使得作者关系必须要明确.每位作者都必须清楚的说明自己的贡献,当然,也必须要有作者成为论文的责任人.这些建议最早在1997年提出,但只有少数期刊(例如JAMA,BMJ,Lancet)列出每位作者的工作.为了防止数据论文范文,一些期刊要求作者中的一位作为责任作者.

　　确定作者身份必须基于以下几点:对于设计,数据获取和阐述做出了真正的贡献;认真审阅文章的内容;最终承认出版的版本.这三点必须满足.获得资金支持,收集数据,或者研究小组的日常管理等等工作,都不能够被列入作者.确定作者身份

　　 1 List authors in order of greatest contribution to the work, from most to least. 按照贡献程度列出作者;

　　 2. List full name, highest degree, and institutional affiliation of each author 列出每位作者的全名,最高学位和所属单位;

　　 3. List more than 5 authors may require an explanation 列出多于5名作者通常需要做出解释;

　　 4. Give full address, phone number, fax number, and -mail address of corresponding author .给出通讯作者的地址,电话,传真和电子邮件;

　　 5. Admonition against gratuitous authorship对不合理的作者身份提出警告.

　　一些建议(1)预先讨论"贡献";

　　 (2)要求每位参与者都写下自己的工作;

　　 (3)就参与贡献程度达成一致;

　　 (4)确定谁是责任作者;

　　 (5)保证每位出贡献的人都能够看到原始数据;

　　 (6)与所有出贡献的人讨论对数据的分析和阐述.